General Interpretive Guidelines:
There are general guidelines that should be taken into consideration when evaluating any projective drawing. Regardless of which drawing is being completed, the manner in which the task is approached and the way the drawing presented are of equal importance to the content itself. The first step in analyzing the drawing, then, is to look at the overall picture and evaluate it in the following areas.
Line Quality:
Variable pressure in an otherwise normal drawing suggests a flexible and adaptable personality (Urban, 1963). Unusually heavy pressure (indentations noted on the reverse of the paper) is a sign of tension (Jolles, 1971), high energy level (Hetherington, 1952), forcefulness and possible actingout tendencies (Hammer, 1965, 1968, 1969b). Light sketch pressure often reflects a hesitant,indecisive, timid and insecure individual (DiLeo, 1970), Machover, 1949). Most likely, this person is experiencing a lack of self-confidence and problems with seld-assertion. In children, light pressure may suggest a restrained or inhibited personality with a low level of energy (Hammer, 1968). The use of shading and shaded strokes suggests anxiety when present in the drawing of adults (DiLeo, 1970, 1973; Jolles, 1971) but is frequently found in the drawings of normal children (Koppitz, 1968).
Size:
The size of the drawing must be considered in relation to the size of the paper. Unusually large drawings suggest either aggressive, expansive, or grandiose tendencies (Koppitz, 1968) or acting out potential (Gilbert, 1969; Machover, 1949). People with feelings of inferiorty or inadequace may produce large drawings as a compenstaory defense mechanism (Delatte and Hendrickson, 1982). When this dynamic is present, there are usually other signs in the drawing of conflict and insecurity. Small drawings directly reveal feelings of inferiority, timidness, insecurity, and ineffectiveness (Buck, 1969; Jolles, 1971; Machover, 1951; Prytola Phelps, Morissery, and Davis, 1978). People who draw small figures usually are hesitant to reveal their feelings, and tent to be restrained and inhibited in their interactions with others. Small figures may also be a indication of depressive and constricted behavior under stress (Handler and Reyber, 1964).
Placement:
Central placement on the page suggests a normal, reasonably secure person especially if, when there is more than one figure in the drawing, the figures are balanced and in proportion to one another (Urban, 1963). Placement on the right side of the page indicates intellectualizing tendencies, sometimes to the point of inhibiting expression of feelings (Hammer, 1969b; Jolles, 1971). Right side placement may also show that the person's behavior is governed by the "reality principle" or that he candidly looks at the here and now (Hammer, 1969b; Marzoff and Kirchner, 1972). In addition,right side placement (especially in the lower right side) indicates that the material is approaching consciousness, and thus represents potential areas of development and integration. Placement on the left side suggests probable impulsive behavior with a drive towards immediate emotional satisfaction of needs (Hammer, 1958, 1969b). Orientations towards the past, that which is unknown, or the ending of some phase of life are also represented by drawings on the left side (Jolles, 1971; Urban, 1963).
Placement high on the page suggests a high level of aspiration (Machover, 1949), an active fantasy life (Buck, 1969; Jolles, 1971), or extreme optimism that is frequently unjustified (Machover, 1949; Urban, 1963). In children, high placement reflects high standards of achievement and high drive (Jolles, 1971). Placement low on the page reveals feelings of insecurity, low level of self-esteem, possible depressive tendencies, and/or defeatist attitudes (Jolles, 1971). Using the lower edge of the paper as the base for the drawing may indicates a need for support associated with feelings of insecurity or a lack of self-confidence (Schildkrout, Shanker, and Sonnenblick, 1972).
Order and Organization:
Most drawings will show some orderline in their representations. People who are functioning well psychologically place the figure of the drawing evenly in the paper, and show a sense of proportion and interaction to create a complete picture (Lakin, 1956; Urban, 1963). People who are depressed or of a low intellectual level, however, may have a number of different figures or objects in their drawings, but the interaction among them is minimal or negligent. People with severe psychological disturbances such as schizophrenia may present their drawing in a very bizarre or disordered fashion, with the figures relating to each other in an unconventional or confusing manner (Hammer, 1954; McElhaney, 1969).
Sometimes, in an effort to maintain order in their drawings, individuals will box off or number the elements represented (Gilbert, 1969; Lerner, 1972). This is particularly true in drawing tasks where a person is asked to draw a number of different figures within one drawing (Bender Gestalt, Draw-A-Family test). People who use this method to create order often have a difficult time controlling their lives, and rely heavily on external structures and guideline. Without the external limits they become quite anxious and unable to achieve their potential. Usually these persons tend to be rigid and meticulous in their dealings with the world, and lack the internal controls necessary to interact with their environment in a satisfactory manner.
When only one element of a drawing is encapsulated, it may represent a desire on the part of the individual to remove this area of conflict from his/her life by putting a wall around and preventing further interaction with it.
Symmetry:
Extreme bilateral symmetry creates a stiff and rigid drawing which indicates that spontaneous impulses or emotions are repressed with obsessive-compulsive or excessive intellectualization defenses (Hammer, 1958' Machover, 1949). Such people are often characterized as cold, distant, hypertense, and perfectionistic. Marked disturbance in symmetry feelings of insecurity, "unbalanced" self concept, or poor impulse control with overactivity and excessive spontaneity (Machover, 1949; Urban, 1963).
Erasures:
Excessive erasures suggest uncertainty, indecisiveness, and restlessness (Machover, 1949; Schildkrout, Shenker, and Sonnenblick, 1972; Urban, 1963). Often these individuals are dissatisfied with themselves and are experiencing a great deal of anxiety (Hammer, 1958, 1968). When this condition is extreme, it may reflect an obsessive-compulsive personality (Machover, 1949). Frequent erasures are rarely seen in the drawing of children, schizophrenics, or organics. As would be expected, erasures focus attention on a particular area of the drawing and suggest conflict or concern about what that area represents to the individual. If an erasure is made to improve the drawing, the person may be expressing a degree of flexibility which is consistent with a satisfactory adjustment (Jolles, 1971; Roback, 1968) and a striving for achievement (Wysocki and Whysocki, 1973).
Detail:
Lack of detail in the drawing suggests either psychosomatic hypertensive conditions (Modell and Potter, 1949) or depressive and with drawing tendencies (Hammer, 1954; Schildkrout, Shenker, and Sonnenblick, 1972). Excessive detail indicates obsessive-compulsive tendencies, rigidity, and/or anxiety (Hammer, 1958, 1965, 1969). People who are highly emotional and creative also tend to use a great deal of detail in their drawings. Bizarre details can be indicative of psychosis (McElhaney, 1969; Mursell, 1969).
Transparencies:
When the body is represented as transparent and internal organs are depicted, there is a likelihood of somatic delusions and/or a schizophrenic or manic condition (Machover, 1949; Wolman, 1970). Transparent clothing drawn by an adult suggests voyeuristic or exhibitionistic tendencies and possible problems with sexual identity, depending on the nature of the drawing (Machover, 1949). Transparencies in children's drawings, however, are not unusual (Urban, 1963).
Distortions and Omissions:
When a drawing is quite distorted or bizarre, the person's awareness of reality is often confused and disturbed, which may indicate a psychotic or schizophrenic condition (McElhaney, 1969; Urban, 1963). Omission of essential details may occur as a part of this distortion, or it may occur in an otherwise integrated drawing. In the latter case, omission of an important part suggests a strong area of conflict with the use of denial as the primary defense mechanism (Urban, 1963).
Perspective:
A drawing that is represented as seen from below shows feelings of rejection, unhappiness, or inferiority(Jolles, 1971). Withdrawal tendencies and a desire for only limited interpersonal contact are typical. Drawings that are represented as seen from above, reflect a sense of superiority, possibly as a compensation for underlying feelings of inadequacy or other conflictual states existing within the person (Hammer, 1958; Landisberg, 1969). Drawings that are very distant and far away show feelings of inaccessibility and a desire to withdraw (Jolles, 1971). It may be that a particular situation is judged as being beyond the person's ability to handle effectivity or perhaps the individual has rejected this area of his life. A close appearance, on the other hand, suggests feelings of interpersonal warmth and psychological accessibility (Jolles, 1971).
Shading:
In general, shading responses are indicative of anxiety (DiLeo, 1970, 1973; Machover, 1951, 1958). Often the area of the picture that is shaded will indicate the particular aspect of the person's life that is causing anxiety or conflict. When shading pervades the entire picture, anxiety may be more "free floating" and not attached to any particular area of disturbances. However, a moderate amount of shading is frequently found in the drawings of normals, and Deabler (1969) has even found a complete lack of shading to be associated with character.
There are general guidelines that should be taken into consideration when evaluating any projective drawing. Regardless of which drawing is being completed, the manner in which the task is approached and the way the drawing presented are of equal importance to the content itself. The first step in analyzing the drawing, then, is to look at the overall picture and evaluate it in the following areas.
Line Quality:
Variable pressure in an otherwise normal drawing suggests a flexible and adaptable personality (Urban, 1963). Unusually heavy pressure (indentations noted on the reverse of the paper) is a sign of tension (Jolles, 1971), high energy level (Hetherington, 1952), forcefulness and possible actingout tendencies (Hammer, 1965, 1968, 1969b). Light sketch pressure often reflects a hesitant,indecisive, timid and insecure individual (DiLeo, 1970), Machover, 1949). Most likely, this person is experiencing a lack of self-confidence and problems with seld-assertion. In children, light pressure may suggest a restrained or inhibited personality with a low level of energy (Hammer, 1968). The use of shading and shaded strokes suggests anxiety when present in the drawing of adults (DiLeo, 1970, 1973; Jolles, 1971) but is frequently found in the drawings of normal children (Koppitz, 1968).
Size:
The size of the drawing must be considered in relation to the size of the paper. Unusually large drawings suggest either aggressive, expansive, or grandiose tendencies (Koppitz, 1968) or acting out potential (Gilbert, 1969; Machover, 1949). People with feelings of inferiorty or inadequace may produce large drawings as a compenstaory defense mechanism (Delatte and Hendrickson, 1982). When this dynamic is present, there are usually other signs in the drawing of conflict and insecurity. Small drawings directly reveal feelings of inferiority, timidness, insecurity, and ineffectiveness (Buck, 1969; Jolles, 1971; Machover, 1951; Prytola Phelps, Morissery, and Davis, 1978). People who draw small figures usually are hesitant to reveal their feelings, and tent to be restrained and inhibited in their interactions with others. Small figures may also be a indication of depressive and constricted behavior under stress (Handler and Reyber, 1964).
Placement:
Central placement on the page suggests a normal, reasonably secure person especially if, when there is more than one figure in the drawing, the figures are balanced and in proportion to one another (Urban, 1963). Placement on the right side of the page indicates intellectualizing tendencies, sometimes to the point of inhibiting expression of feelings (Hammer, 1969b; Jolles, 1971). Right side placement may also show that the person's behavior is governed by the "reality principle" or that he candidly looks at the here and now (Hammer, 1969b; Marzoff and Kirchner, 1972). In addition,right side placement (especially in the lower right side) indicates that the material is approaching consciousness, and thus represents potential areas of development and integration. Placement on the left side suggests probable impulsive behavior with a drive towards immediate emotional satisfaction of needs (Hammer, 1958, 1969b). Orientations towards the past, that which is unknown, or the ending of some phase of life are also represented by drawings on the left side (Jolles, 1971; Urban, 1963).
Placement high on the page suggests a high level of aspiration (Machover, 1949), an active fantasy life (Buck, 1969; Jolles, 1971), or extreme optimism that is frequently unjustified (Machover, 1949; Urban, 1963). In children, high placement reflects high standards of achievement and high drive (Jolles, 1971). Placement low on the page reveals feelings of insecurity, low level of self-esteem, possible depressive tendencies, and/or defeatist attitudes (Jolles, 1971). Using the lower edge of the paper as the base for the drawing may indicates a need for support associated with feelings of insecurity or a lack of self-confidence (Schildkrout, Shanker, and Sonnenblick, 1972).
Order and Organization:
Most drawings will show some orderline in their representations. People who are functioning well psychologically place the figure of the drawing evenly in the paper, and show a sense of proportion and interaction to create a complete picture (Lakin, 1956; Urban, 1963). People who are depressed or of a low intellectual level, however, may have a number of different figures or objects in their drawings, but the interaction among them is minimal or negligent. People with severe psychological disturbances such as schizophrenia may present their drawing in a very bizarre or disordered fashion, with the figures relating to each other in an unconventional or confusing manner (Hammer, 1954; McElhaney, 1969).
Sometimes, in an effort to maintain order in their drawings, individuals will box off or number the elements represented (Gilbert, 1969; Lerner, 1972). This is particularly true in drawing tasks where a person is asked to draw a number of different figures within one drawing (Bender Gestalt, Draw-A-Family test). People who use this method to create order often have a difficult time controlling their lives, and rely heavily on external structures and guideline. Without the external limits they become quite anxious and unable to achieve their potential. Usually these persons tend to be rigid and meticulous in their dealings with the world, and lack the internal controls necessary to interact with their environment in a satisfactory manner.
When only one element of a drawing is encapsulated, it may represent a desire on the part of the individual to remove this area of conflict from his/her life by putting a wall around and preventing further interaction with it.
Symmetry:
Extreme bilateral symmetry creates a stiff and rigid drawing which indicates that spontaneous impulses or emotions are repressed with obsessive-compulsive or excessive intellectualization defenses (Hammer, 1958' Machover, 1949). Such people are often characterized as cold, distant, hypertense, and perfectionistic. Marked disturbance in symmetry feelings of insecurity, "unbalanced" self concept, or poor impulse control with overactivity and excessive spontaneity (Machover, 1949; Urban, 1963).
Erasures:
Excessive erasures suggest uncertainty, indecisiveness, and restlessness (Machover, 1949; Schildkrout, Shenker, and Sonnenblick, 1972; Urban, 1963). Often these individuals are dissatisfied with themselves and are experiencing a great deal of anxiety (Hammer, 1958, 1968). When this condition is extreme, it may reflect an obsessive-compulsive personality (Machover, 1949). Frequent erasures are rarely seen in the drawing of children, schizophrenics, or organics. As would be expected, erasures focus attention on a particular area of the drawing and suggest conflict or concern about what that area represents to the individual. If an erasure is made to improve the drawing, the person may be expressing a degree of flexibility which is consistent with a satisfactory adjustment (Jolles, 1971; Roback, 1968) and a striving for achievement (Wysocki and Whysocki, 1973).
Detail:
Lack of detail in the drawing suggests either psychosomatic hypertensive conditions (Modell and Potter, 1949) or depressive and with drawing tendencies (Hammer, 1954; Schildkrout, Shenker, and Sonnenblick, 1972). Excessive detail indicates obsessive-compulsive tendencies, rigidity, and/or anxiety (Hammer, 1958, 1965, 1969). People who are highly emotional and creative also tend to use a great deal of detail in their drawings. Bizarre details can be indicative of psychosis (McElhaney, 1969; Mursell, 1969).
Transparencies:
When the body is represented as transparent and internal organs are depicted, there is a likelihood of somatic delusions and/or a schizophrenic or manic condition (Machover, 1949; Wolman, 1970). Transparent clothing drawn by an adult suggests voyeuristic or exhibitionistic tendencies and possible problems with sexual identity, depending on the nature of the drawing (Machover, 1949). Transparencies in children's drawings, however, are not unusual (Urban, 1963).
Distortions and Omissions:
When a drawing is quite distorted or bizarre, the person's awareness of reality is often confused and disturbed, which may indicate a psychotic or schizophrenic condition (McElhaney, 1969; Urban, 1963). Omission of essential details may occur as a part of this distortion, or it may occur in an otherwise integrated drawing. In the latter case, omission of an important part suggests a strong area of conflict with the use of denial as the primary defense mechanism (Urban, 1963).
Perspective:
A drawing that is represented as seen from below shows feelings of rejection, unhappiness, or inferiority(Jolles, 1971). Withdrawal tendencies and a desire for only limited interpersonal contact are typical. Drawings that are represented as seen from above, reflect a sense of superiority, possibly as a compensation for underlying feelings of inadequacy or other conflictual states existing within the person (Hammer, 1958; Landisberg, 1969). Drawings that are very distant and far away show feelings of inaccessibility and a desire to withdraw (Jolles, 1971). It may be that a particular situation is judged as being beyond the person's ability to handle effectivity or perhaps the individual has rejected this area of his life. A close appearance, on the other hand, suggests feelings of interpersonal warmth and psychological accessibility (Jolles, 1971).
Shading:
In general, shading responses are indicative of anxiety (DiLeo, 1970, 1973; Machover, 1951, 1958). Often the area of the picture that is shaded will indicate the particular aspect of the person's life that is causing anxiety or conflict. When shading pervades the entire picture, anxiety may be more "free floating" and not attached to any particular area of disturbances. However, a moderate amount of shading is frequently found in the drawings of normals, and Deabler (1969) has even found a complete lack of shading to be associated with character.
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